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| Medical therapy for nephrolithiasis: State of the art |
Igor Sorokina,Margaret S. Pearlebc*( )
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a. Department of Urology, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA, USA
b. Department of Urology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
c. Charles and Jane Pak Center for Mineral Metabolism and Bone Research, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA |
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Abstract The prevalence of nephrolithiasis is increasing worldwide. Understanding and implementing medical therapies for kidney stone prevention are critical to prevent recurrences and decrease the economic burden of this condition. Dietary and pharmacologic therapies require understanding on the part of the patient and the prescribing practitioner in order to promote compliance. Insights into occupational exposures and antibiotic use may help uncover individual risk factors. Follow-up is essential to assess response to treatment and to modify treatment plans to maximize therapeutic benefit.
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Received: 14 January 2018
Published: 19 November 2018
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Corresponding Authors:
S. Pearle Margaret
E-mail: margaret.pearle@utsouthwestern.edu
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| Dietary component | Recommendation | | Fluid | Maintain fluid intake that achieves urine volume ≥2.5 L daily | | Limit sugar-sweetened soft drinks | | Consider intake of orange juice with no added sugar to prevent calcium nephrolithiasis | | Calcium | Avoid severe dietary calcium restriction | | Maintain calcium intake of 1000-1200 mg/day | | Oxalate | Avoid oxalate rich foods (nuts, chocolate, brewed tea, spinach, rhubarb, beets, potatoes, peanut butter, wheat bran, beans) | | Avoid juices with cranberry, grapefruit, starfruit | | Maintain normal calcium intake | | Protein | Modestly restrict animal protein (red meat, fish, poultry, pork, shellfish) to no more than 6-8 ounces daily | | Carbohydrate | Restrict refined carbohydrates to <20 g/day | | Sodium | Limit sodium intake to ≤100 mEq/day (2300 mg/day) | | Citrate | Increase intake of fruits and vegetables, orange juice is beneficial | | Calcium supplement | Consider for enteric hyperoxaluria (take with the two largest meals) but avoid for idiopathic calcium stone disease if dietary calcium intake is sufficient | | Vitamin B6 supplement | Consider for primary hyperoxaluria type 1, but not proven for idiopathic causes | | Vitamin C supplement | Limit intake of vitamin C to <2 g/day | | Vitamin D supplement | Should not be withheld solely on the basis of stone disease. If deficient and repletion is indicated, monitor with 24 h urine analysis. | | Low carbohydrate/high protein diet (Atkins) | Avoid (increase in net acid; hypocitraturia; hypercalciuria, hyperuricosuria) | | DASH diet | Likely protective against stone disease | | Mediterranean diet | Likely protective against stone disease (inferred from similarities to DASH diet) |
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| Medication | Rationale | Dose | Specifics/side effects | Monitoring | | Calcium oxalate stones | | Thiazide | Hypercalciuria | Hydrochlorothiazide 25-50 mg BID, chlorthalidone 25-50 mg/day, indapamide 1.25-5 mg/day | Hypokalemia, hyperlipidemia, hyperuricemia, hyperglycemia, hypocitraturia, hyperuricosuria, fatigue, erectile dysfunction | BMP, uric acid, lipid profile | | Potassium citrate (oral) | Hypocitraturia, low urine pH | 10-30 mEq BID | GI side effects | Serum creatinine & potassium | | Potassium citrate (liquid) | Enteric hyperoxaluria, chronic diarrhea | 15-30 mEq TID-QID (titrate to reduce oxalate) | GI side effects, take with two largest meals | Serum creatinine & potassium | | Allopurinol | Hyperuricosuria | 100-300 mg/day | Hypertransaminasemia, Stevens-Johnson syndrome | Liver enzymes | | Uric acid stones | | Potassium citrate (oral)a | Alkalinization | 10-30 mEq BID (titrate dose to pH 6-6.5) | GI side effects | Serum creatinine & potassium | | Sodium bicarbonate | Alkalinization | 650 mg BID-QID | Increased sodium load may increase risk of calcium stones | BMP | | Allopurinol | Hyperuricosuria 2nd line therapy when alkalinization not successful | 100-300 mg/day | Hypertransaminasemia, Stevens-Johnson syndrome | Liver enzymes | | Cystine stones | | Tiopronin (α-MPG) | Increase cystine solubility | Initial 400 mg/day titrate to effect | Hematologic effects, tachyphylaxis, proteinuria, nausea, diarrhea, vitamin B6 deficiency (long-term use) | CBC, BMP, urine protein | | Potassium citrate (oral) | Alkalinization | 10-30 mEq BID (titrate dose to pH 7-7.5) | GI side effects | Serum creatinine & potassium | | Struvite stones | | Acetohydroxamic acid | Urease-inhibitor | 250 mg BID-TID | Headache, anemia, thrombophlebitis, rash, tremulousness | CBC |
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